Why Was the Byzantine Empire Able to Expand to the East in the Late Ninth and Tenth Centuries?

Why was the knotted empire able to expand to the easterly in the late 9th and tenth centuries? In the seventh and eighth century the tortuous conglomerate was overwhelmed by Arab attacks resulting in the loss of Syria, Egypt and North Africa. The quick loss of the conglomerates lands and the continuous Arab sieges on Constantinople appeared to be signs of the end of the knobbed imperium. In the late ninth and tenth centuries however this had changed, surprisingly in spite of appearance these centuries the Byzantine Empire fuck offd a period of revival.It was a period of addd interchange and prosperity, a revival of the Empires economy. The Byzantines phalanx had begun a process of transformation through in the buff military tactical manoeuvre and shakeup which made it a formidable fighting force. Simultaneously as these changes occurred, the Abbasid Caliphate had weakened significantly a slave revolt and political divisions resulted in the split of the Abbasid Calip hate into three smaller Caliphates. The combined factors resulted in the amplification of the Byzantine Empire in the east in the late ninth and tenth centuries.The most significant ca affair for this expansion was the ground forces, specifically the use of new tactics and the reorganisation of the Byzantine forces. The revival of the Byzantine economy was important as the increased trade and prosperity allowed greater taxation which could then be spent on the regular the States for better weaponry and heavy Cavalry divisions. The revival of the economy is a lend factor however it is subordinate to the army which was crucial. This is because the military advantage was stimulated to a greater degree by leadership and improved tactics rather than weaponry which was influenced by the revival of the economy.Without the introduction of new tactics and the reorganisation of the Byzantine army the Byzantine Empire would not have been as successful in the expansion in the east. The dec line and the splitting of the Abbasid Caliphate were contri barelying factors as the emerging Hamdanid Caliphate was weaker than its predecessor making it more exposable to attacks. This did not however mean the complete collapse of the Abbasid Caliphate. Its successor the Hamdanid Caliphate was still powerful, therefore it was the army reforms and new tactics which were the most significant reason in allowing the Byzantine to defeat the Arabs and make ains in the east. The seventh and eighth centuries were periods characterised by the Themes. These were military districts with their own military governor and individual militia to defend each province in response to the new Arab threat. In the ninth and tenth centuries there was a sacking in this policy. There was greater need for a military force for offensive assaults rather than defensive purposes. This resulted in the creation of the Tagmata, a salaried, disciplined and exceedingly skilful army.The Byzantine army evolved into a much more offensive tactical structure the main causes being the need to operate effectively on campaigns which demanded more than the seasonally available theme armies. The shift from regional militias to a professional and well-disciplined army was crucial for the Byzantine Empires expansion in the east. It gave the Empire the cleverness to launch offensive campaigns thereby allowing the Empire to make gains in the east which would not have been possible using the thematic militias as they were not suited to such warfare.The introduction of new tactics and the reorganisation of the Byzantine army was a fundamental factor in the expansion in the east during the ninth and tenth centuries. Generals could utilise field manuals which produced a flexible yet hard hitting force at their disposal that could respond appropriately to a set up of different situations. These field manuals also produced military drills to better prepare and improve the overall quality of their soldiers . The De Velitatione is one example of these field manuals it states There is no separate possible wayfor you to prepare for warfare except by first exercising and training the army under you command. You must accustom them to, and train them in, the discussion of weapons and get them to endure bitter and wearisome tasks and labours. The use of field manuals ultimately improved the quality of the commanders and the soldiers which he controlled. This produced a professional and disciplined Byzantine army which could launch attacks in the east compared to the themed militias. The restructuring of the Byzantine army was important for increasing its ferocity and effectiveness in battle.There was a greater emphasis on the use of to a great extent armoured cavalry called the Kataphraktoi in the Byzantine army. They were required to have iron helmets heavily reinforced so as to cover their faces so that besides their eyes appear. They should also wear leg guards. They must have sturd y horses covered in armour of pieces of felt and boiled leather fastened unitedly down to the knees so that nothing of the horses body appears except its eyes and nostrils. The Kataphraktoi were the elite strike force within the army . The use of heavily armoured cavalry increased the destructive force of the Byzantine army when attacking.The reorganisation and new military tactics of the Byzantine army were important provided this was assisted greatly by skilled leadership. In the ninth and tenth century the army benefited from punishing leadership which was imperative for further expansion. The emperor moth Nikephorous and the Emperor John I Tzimiskes are examples of excellent leaders. John I Tzimiskes appointed commanders who were known for their skill and experience in military matters. This was crucial as commanders who had experience and were skilful would be more able in battle increasing the likelihood of victory in the east.Nikephorous is described as outstripping eve ry man of his contemporaries for wisdom and intelligence. Nikephorous understood the importance of a paid, highly-trained and equipped army. John Skylitzes notes that Nikephorous imposed additional taxes and even requisitioned supplies so that his army could be well paid and put in for campaign . This is vital as a paid and well supplied army will have greater morale for battle. The reform and the restructuring of the Byzantine army as well as its strong leadership was a decisive factor.The focus of the Byzantine military shifted from the thematic militias to a highly trained and disciplined army capable of defeating the Arabs on numerous occasions including the capture of Crete in 961 and the siege of Tarsos in 965. The revival of the Byzantine economy is an important factor in the Empires ability to expand east in the late ninth and tenth century. A professional, large standing army would require a prospering economy to pay for it and in the ninth century two-thirds of state e xpenditure was spent on defence and the army .Constantinople was a major port for trade linking Europe to Asia. The Byzantine Empire produced valuable, high quality goods such as Byzantine Silk which was traded as far as modern England. There was a six-fold increase in the minting of bronze coins which is evidence of a rise in trade. The rise in trade within the Byzantine Empire increased the governments resources as it benefited from higher tax taxation from imports and exports. Increased tax revenue resulted in greater military expenditure providing the military equipment for the army which made it so effective in battle.This can be illustrated by the fact that although average pay increase of some 62 per cent and the rise in the army payroll of 140 per cent, while the government still ran a surplus . The revival of the Byzantine economy was important, as it helped to finance and pay for the army yet this is subordinate to the reform of the Byzantine army. The revival of the eco nomy allowed greater financing of the army for weapons and heavy cavalry. This is only a contributing factor to the Byzantine Military gains in the East.Greater emphasis of the Byzantine successes should be placed on the leadership, the reorganisation of the army and the use of new tactics which caused the shift from the thematic militias to a professional army. The decline of the Abbasid Empire was a significant reason for the expansion of the Byzantine Empire in the east in the late ninth and tenth century. When the Byzantine Empire was experiencing a period of frugal revival, the Abbasid Empire was experiencing economic decline. The richest area of the Abbasid Empire was Iraq and the government was dependent on the revenue. The tax revenue of the Abbasid Empire was crucial for paying its army which had made the Arabs formidable. The Zanj rebellion of 869-883 was a serious slave rebellion in south Iraq that threatened the very survival of the caliphate and the press against them was a war to the death. The Zanj rebellion was supressed, but the economic consequences were catastrophic for the Abbasid Empire. The slave farming and large scale reclamation of land was never begun again and it seems unconvincing that the city of Basra ever fully recovered. This rebellion caused the tax revenue of the Abbasid Empire to fall substantially in the long term from 100 million dirhams to 30 million dirhams by the beginning of the tenth century . The economic decline caused the Abbasid Empire to become increasingly unable to pay the salaries of its soldiers triggering instability, compared to the Byzantine Army which was paid regularly. The economic decline produced a period when caliphs succeeded one another with bewildering speed four different rulers being proclaimed and accepted as caliphs, of whom at least(prenominal) three were subsequently killed by assassination or rebellion. The Abbasid Empire could no longer finance a large army as it had done in the sevent h and eighth centuries and it was this inability to pay its soldiers that caused instability in the governing of the Empire. Ultimately the economic pressure caused the Abbasid Empire to split in the tenth century. In 929 the Independent Umayyad Caliphate in Spain was established and in 969 the Shiite Fatamids seized Egypt. What remained of the Abbasid Empire, closest to the Byzantine Empire was the new Hamdanid Empire. This had significantly little tax revenue and resources at its disposal which meant less revenue to spend on its army.Consequently the Hamdanid Empire was far weaker than its predecessor, making it easier for the Byzantine Empire to expand in the east in a period of economic revival and military reform. The decline of the Abbasid Empire caused the new Arab caliphate to be more susceptible to Byzantine attacks however it was the reform of the army which was the decisive factor for expansion in the east. Economic decline may have weakened the Abbasids ability to pay i ts army which caused discontent, yet it was still in a reasonably strong position at the beginning of the tenth century.The death of the Caliph Al Muktafi in 908 marks the high point of the Abbasid revival. Not only were Syria and Egypt subdued but the treasury was full and the caliph left 15 million dinars. The army seems to have been effective and firmly under the control of the caliph and his civilian administrators. The Abbassid Empire did not split until much later in the tenth century yet the Byzantine Empire was still able to inflict defeats including the battle of Lalakaon in 868 and at the Battle of Bathys Ryax in 872. Therefore the underlining factor which allowed the Byzantine Empire to expand to the east was its own army reforms.Even with the split of the Abbassid Empire and although the Hamdanid Empire was significantly weaker, it was still able to launch successful offensives against the Byzantine Empire. In 956 Saif al Daulah had penetrated deeply into the Byzantine frontier region, caused a great deal of damage and kerfuffle to the local population and the military command, totally outmanoeuvred his enemy, outwitted them in a short, sharp field action, and returned safely laden with booty. This emphasises that the Arabs were not weakened to such an extent where they could be easily beaten.It also highlighted consequences when the Byzantine commanders failed to follow the strategy. In the ninth and tenth centuries the Byzantine Empire was able to make gains in the east. This was a result of a period of Byzantine revival and the Abbasid Empires decline. The economic revival of the Byzantine Empire was beneficial as there was greater trade which increased tax revenue which in turn paid for the army. The Abbasid Empires economic decline in the long term caused the eventual split of the empire making it much weaker and open to Byzantine attacks.The most fundamental factor was the reform of the army, the use of new tactics and the reorganisation of the Byzantine military. The shift from thematic militias to a disciplined and highly trained army using heavy cavalry was crucial in the expansion in the east. Bibliography HALDON, J. , Byzantium at War, in The Fall of Constantinople The Ottoman Conquest of Byzantium. Tempus, 2007. HALDON, J. , The Byzantine Wars. Tempus, 2001. HOURANI, A, A. History of the Arab Peoples. Warner Books 2009. KENNEDY, H. , The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates. The Islamic Near East from the Sixth to the Eleventh Century.Pearson Education, 1986. 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